Biography

Dr. Lefkowitz was born on April 15, 1943 in New York City. He was an undergraduate at Columbia College from which he received a Bachelor of Arts Degree in 1962. He graduated from Columbia University College of Physicians and Surgeons in 1966 with an M.D. Degree. After serving an internship and one year of general medical residency at the College of Physicians and Surgeons, he served as a Clinical and Research Associate at the National Institutes of Health from 1968 to 1970. From 1970 to 1973 he was at the Massachusetts General Hospital in Boston, Massachusetts, where he completed his medical residency and research and clinical training in cardiovascular disease. Upon completing this training in 1973, he was appointed Associate Professor of Medicine and Assistant Professor of Biochemistry at the Duke University Medical Center. In 1977 he was promoted to Professor of Medicine and in 1982 to James B. Duke Professor of Medicine at Duke University.^[1] He is also Professor of Biochemistry. He has been an Investigator of the Howard Hughes Medical Institute since 1976 and was an Established Investigator of the American Heart Association from 1973-1976.^[2]

Lefkowitz studies receptor biology and signal transduction and is most well known for his detailed characterizations of the sequence, structure and function of the β-adrenergic and related receptors and for the discovery and characterization of the two families of proteins which regulate them, the G-protein coupled receptor kinases (GRKs) and β-arrestins. Lefkowitz made a remarkable contribution in the mid-1980s when he and his colleagues cloned the gene first for the β-adrenergic receptor, and then rapidly thereafter, for a total of 8 adrenergic receptors (receptors for adrenaline and noradrenaline). This led to the seminal discovery that all G protein-coupled receptors (which include the β-adrenergic receptor) have a very similar molecular structure. The structure is defined by an amino acid sequence which weaves its way back and forth across the plasma membrane seven times. Today we know that about 1,000 receptors in the human body belong to this same family. The importance of this is that all of these receptors use the same basic mechanisms so that pharmaceutical researchers now understood how to effectively target the largest receptor family in the human body. Today, as many as 30 to 50 percent of all prescription drugs are designed to "fit" like keys into the similarly structured locks of Lefkowitz' receptors - everything from anti-histamines to ulcer drugs to beta blockers that help relieve hypertension, angina and coronary disease. ^[3] Lefkowitz is among the most highly cited researchers in the fields of biology, biochemistry, pharmacology, toxicology, and clinical medicine according to Thomson-ISI.^[4]

Awards

Dr. Lefkowitz has received numerous awards including:

• 2012  Nobel Prize in Chemistry

• 2009 BBVA Frontiers of Knowledge Award, in the Biomedicine Category.

  

• 2009 Research Achievement Award, American Heart Association ^[5]

• 2007 National Medal of Science ^[6][7]

• 2007 The Shaw Prize in Life Science and Medicine ^[8]
• 2007 Albany Medical Center Prize in Medicine and Biomedical Research ^[9]

• 2003 Fondation Lefoulon - Delalande Grand Prix for Science - Institut of France ^[10]
• 2001 Jessie Stevenson Kovalenko Medal of the USA - The National Academy of Sciences ^[11]
• 1992 Bristol-Myers Squibb Award for Distinguished Achievement In Cardiovascular Research
• 1988 Gairdner Foundation International Award ^[12]

Key Papers

• Mukherjee, C., Caron, M.G., Coverstone, M. and Lefkowitz, R.J. (1975). "Identification of adenylate cyclase-coupled β-adrenergic receptors in frog erythrocytes with (-)[3H]alprenolol". J. Biol. Chem USA 250 (13): 4869-4876. PMID 238972.
• Mukherjee, C., Caron, M.G. and Lefkowitz, R.J. (1975). "Catecholamine-induced subsensitivity of adenylate cyclase associated with loss of beta-adrenergic receptor binding sites". Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 72 (5): 1945-1949. doi:10.1073/pnas.72.5.1945. PMC 432665. PMID 1057183. http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=432665.
• Lefkowitz, R.J., Mullikin, D. and Caron, M.G. (1976). "Regulation of beta-adrenergic receptors by 5'guanylylimidodiphosphate and other purine nucleotides". J. Biol. Chem USA 251 (15): 4688-4692. PMID 947904.
• Williams, L.T. and Lefkowitz, R.J. (1976). "α-adrenergic receptor identification by [3H]dihydroergocryptine binding". Science 192 (4241): 791-793. PMID 4894.
• Limbird, L.E. and Lefkowitz, R.J. (1977). "Resolution of beta-adrenergic receptor binding and adenylate cyclase activity by gel exclusion chromatography". J. Biol. Chem. 252 (2): 799-802. PMID 833154.
• Caron, M.G., Srinivasan, Y., Pitha, J., Kochiolek, K. and Lefkowitz, R.J. (1979). "Affinity chromatography of the β-adrenergic receptor". J. Biol. Chem. 254 (8): 2923-2927. PMID 218957.
• Kent, R.S., De Lean, A. and Lefkowitz, R.J. (1980). "Quantitative analysis of beta-adrenergic receptor interactions: Resolution of high and low affinity states of the receptor by computer modeling of ligand binding data". Mol. Pharmacol. USA 17 (1): 14-23. PMID 6104284.
• Limbird, L.E., Gill, M. and Lefkowitz, R.J. (1980). "Agonist-promoted coupling of the beta-adrenergic receptor with the guanine nucleotide regulatory protein of the adenylate cyclase system". Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 77 (2): 775-779. doi:10.1073/pnas.77.2.775. PMC 348363. PMID 6244585. http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=348363.
• De Lean, A., Stadel, J.M. and Lefkowitz, R.J (1980). "A ternary complex model explains the agonist-specific binding properties of the adenylate-cyclase coupled beta-adrenergic receptor". J. Biol. Chem. 255 (15): 7108-7117. PMID 6248546.
• Lavin, T., Heald, S., Jeffs, P., Shorr, R., Lefkowtiz, R.J. and Caron, M.G. (1981). "Photoaffinity labeling of the β-adrenergic receptor". J. Biol. Chem. 256 (22): 11944-11950. PMID 6271767.
• DeLean, A., Hancock, A. and Lefkowitz, R.J. (1982). "Validation and statistical analysis of a computer modeling method for quantitative analysis of radiolgiand binding data for mixtures of pharmacological receptor subtypes". Mol. Pharmacol. USA 21 (1): 5-16. PMID 6982395.
• Stadel, J.M., Nambi, P., Lavin, T.N., Heald, S.L., Caron, M.G. and Lefkowitz, R.J. (1982). "Catecholamine-induced desensitization of turkey erythrocyte adenylate cyclase: Structural alterations in the beta-adrenergic receptor revealed by photoaffinity labelling". J. Biol. Chem. 257 (16): 9242-9245. PMID 6125504.
• Cerione, R.A., Strulovici, B., Benovic, J.L., Lefkowitz, R.J. and Caron, M.G. (1983). "Pure beta-adrenergic receptor: the single polypeptide confers catecholamine responsiveness to adenylate cyclase". Nature 306 (5943): 562-566. PMID 6316161.
• Stadel, J.M., Nambi, P., Shorr, R.G.L., Sawyer, D.F., Caron, M.G. and Lefkowitz, R.J. (1983). "Catecholamine-induced desensitization of turkey erythrocyte adenylate cyclase is associated with phosphorylation of the beta adrenergic receptor". Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 80 (11): 3173-3177. doi:10.1073/pnas.80.11.3173. PMC 394002. PMID 6304694. http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=394002.
• Strulovici, B., Cerione, R.A., Kilpatrick, B.F., Caron, M.G. and Lefkowitz, R.J. (1984). "Direct demonstration of impaired functionality of a purified desensitized β-adrenergic receptor in a reconstituted system". Science 225 (4664): 837-840. PMID 6089331.
• Cerione, R.A., Sibley, D.R., Codina, J., Benovic, J.L., Winslow, J., Neer, E.J., Birnbaumer, L., Caron, M.G. and Lefkowitz, R.J. (1984). "Reconstitution of a hormone-sensitive adenylate cyclase system: The pure β-adrenergic receptor and guanine nucleotide regulatory protein confer hormone responsiveness on the resolved catalytic unit". J. Biol. Chem. 259 (16): 9979-9982. PMID 6088509.
• Benovic, J.L., Shorr, R.G.L., Caron, M.G. and Lefkowitz, R.J. (1984). "The mammalian β2-adrenergic receptor: Purification and characterization". Biochemistry USA 23 (20): 4510-4518. doi:10.1021/bi00315a002. PMID 6093858.
• Sibley, D.R., Strasser, R.H., Caron, M.G. and Lefkowitz, R.J. (1985). "Homologous desensitization of adenylate cyclase is associated with phosphorylation of the β-adrenergic receptor". J. Biol. Chem USA 260 (7): 3883-3886. PMID 2858484.
• Regan, J.W., Nakata, H., DeMarinis, R.M., Caron, M.G. and Lefkowitz, R.J. (1985). "Purification and characterization of the human platelet alpha 2-adrenergic receptor". J. Biol. Chem USA 261 (8): 3894-3900. PMID 3005306.
• Lomasney, J.W., Leeb-Lundberg, L.M.F., Cotecchia, S., Regan, J.W., DeBernardis, J.F., Caron, M.G. and Lefkowitz, R.J. (1986). "Mammalian alpha 1-adrenergic receptor. Purification and characterization of the native receptor ligand binding subunit". J. Biol. Chem USA 261 (17): 7710-7716. PMID 3011796.
• Dixon, R.A.F., Kobilka, B.K., Strader, D.J., Benovic, J.L., Dohlman, H.G., Frielle, T., Bolanowski, M.A., Bennett, C.D., Rands, E., Diehl, R.E., Mumford, R.A., Slater, E.E., Sigal, I.S., Caron, M.G., Lefkowitz, R.J. and Strader, C.D. (1986). "Cloning of the gene and cDNA for mammalian beta-adrenergic receptor and homology with rhodopsin". Nature 321 (6065): 75-79. doi:10.1038/321075a0. PMID 3010132.
• Benovic, J.L., Strasser, R.H., Caron, M.G. and Lefkowitz, R.J. (1986). "β-Adrenergic receptor kinase: Identification of a novel protein kinase which phosphorylates the agonist-occupied form of the receptor". Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 83 (9): 2797-2810. doi:10.1073/pnas.83.9.2797. PMC 323393. PMID 2871555. http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=323393.
• Benovic, J.L., Mayor, F., Jr., Somers, R.L., Caron, M.G. and Lefkowitz, R.J. (1986). "Light-dependent phosphorylation of rhodopsin by beta-adrenergic receptor kinase". Nature 321 (6073): 869-872. doi:10.1038/321869a0. PMID 3014340.
• Kobilka, B.K., Matsui, H., Kobilka, T.S., Yang-Feng, T.L., Francke, U., Caron, M.G., Lefkowitz, R.J. and J.W. Regan (1987). "Cloning, sequencing, and expression of the gene coding for the human platelet alpha 2-adrenergic receptor". Science 238 (4827): 650-656. doi:10.1126/science.2823383. PMID 2823383.
• Frielle, T., Collins, S., Daniel, K.W., Caron, M.G., Lefkowitz, R.J. and Kobilka, B.K. (1987). "Cloning of the cDNA for the human β1 adrenergic receptor". Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 84 (22): 7920-7924. doi:10.1073/pnas.84.22.7920. PMC 299447. PMID 2825170. http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=299447.
• Benovic, J.L., Kuhn, H., Weyand, I., Codina, J., Caron, M.G. and Lefkowitz, R.J. (1987). "Functional desensitization of the isolated beta-adrenergic receptor by the beta-adrenergic receptor kinase: potential role of an analog of the retinal protein arrestin (48-kDa protein)". Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 84 (24): 8879-8882. doi:10.1073/pnas.84.24.8879. PMC 299654. PMID 2827157. http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=299654.
• Cotecchia, S., Schwinn, D.A., Randall, R.R., Lefkowitz, R.J., Caron, M.G. and Kobilka, B.K (1988). "Molecular cloning and expression of the cDNA for the hamster alpha1-adrenergic receptor". Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 85 (19): 7159-7163. doi:10.1073/pnas.85.19.7159. PMC 282143. PMID 2845398. http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=282143.
• Kobilka, B.K., Kobilka, T.S., Daniel, K., Regan, J.W., Caron, M.G. and Lefkowitz, R.J. (1988). "Chimeric alpha 2-,beta 2-adrenergic receptors: delineation of domains involved in effector coupling and ligand binding specificity". Science 240 (4857): 1310-1316. PMID 2836950.
• O'Dowd, B.F., Hnatowich, M., Regan, J.W., Leader, W.M., Caron, M.G. and Lefkowitz, R.J. (1988). "Site-directed mutagenesis of the cytoplasmic domains of the human β2-adrenergic receptor: Localization of regions involved in G protein-receptor coupling". J. Biol. Chem. 263 (31): 15985-15992. PMID 2846532.
• Fargin, A., Raymond, R.J., Lohse, M.J., Kobilka, B.K., Caron, M.G. and Lefkowitz, R.J. (1988). "The genomic clone G-21 which resembles a beta-adrenergic receptor sequence encodes the 5-HT1A receptor". Nature 335 (6188): 358-360. doi:10.1038/335358a0. PMID 3138543.
• Regan, J.W., Kobilka, T.S., Yang-Feng, T.L., Caron, M.G. and Lefkowitz, R.J (1988). "Cloning and expression of a human kidney cDNA for an alpha 2-adrenergic receptor subtype". Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 85 (17): 6301-6305. doi:10.1073/pnas.85.17.6301. PMC 281957. PMID 2842764. http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=281957.
• Hausdorff, W.P., Bouvier, M., O'Dowd, B.F., Irons, G.P., Caron, M.G. and Lefkowitz, R.J. (1989). "Phosphorylation sites on two domains of the β2-adrenergic receptor are involved in distinct pathways of receptor desensitization". J. Biol. Chem. 264 (21): 12657-12665. PMID 2545714.
• Benovic, J.L., DeBlasi, A., Stone, W.C., Caron, M.G. and Lefkowitz, R.J. (1989). "β-Adrenergic receptor kinase: Primary structure delineates a multigene family". Science 246 (4927): 235-240. PMID 2552582.
• Schwinn, D.A., Lomasney, J.W., Lorenz, W., Szklut, Fremeau, R.T., Jr., Yang-Feng, T.L., Caron, M.G., Lefkowitz, R.J. and Cotecchia, S. (1990). "Molecular cloning and expression of the cDNA for a novel alpha 1-adrenergic receptor subtype". J. Biol. Chem. 265 (14): 8183-8187. PMID 1970822.
• Lomasney, J.W., Lorenz, W., Allen, L.F., King, K., Regan, J.W., Yang-Feng, T.L., Caron, M.G. and Lefkowitz, R.J. (1990). "Expansion of the Alpha2-adrenergic receptor family: Cloning and Characterization of a human Alpha2-adrenergic receptor subtype, the gene for which is located on chromosome 2". Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 87 (13): 5094-5098. doi:10.1073/pnas.87.13.5094. PMC 54268. PMID 2164221. http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=54268.
• Lohse, M.J., Benovic, J.L., Codina, J., Caron, M.G. and Lefkowitz, R.J. (1990). "beta-Arrestin: a protein that regulates beta-adrenergic receptor function". Science 248 (4962): 1547-1550. doi:10.1126/science.2163110. PMID 2163110.
• Cotecchia, S., Exum, S., Caron, M.G. and Lefkowitz, R.J. (1990). "Regions of the alpha 1-adrenergic receptor involved in coupling to phosphatidylinositol hydrolysis and enhanced sensitivity of biological function". Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 87 (8): 2896-2900. doi:10.1073/pnas.87.8.2896. PMC 53800. PMID 2158097. http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=53800.
• Lorenz, W., Inglese, J., Palczewski, K., Onorato, J.J., Caron, M.G. and Lefkowitz, R.J. (1991). "The receptor kinase family: Primary structure of rhodopsin kinase reveals similarities to the beta-adrenergic receptor kinase". Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA. 88 (19): 8715-8719. doi:10.1073/pnas.88.19.8715. PMC 52580. PMID 1656454. http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=52580.
• Lomasney, J.W., Cotecchia, S., Lorenz, W., Leung, W-Y., Schwinn, D.A., Yang-Feng, T.L., Brownstein, Lefkowitz, R.J., and Caron, M.G. (1991). "Molecular cloning and expression of the cDNA for the alpha 1A-adrenergic receptor. The gene for which is located on human chromosome 5". J. Biol. Chem. 266 (10): 6365-6369. PMID 1706716.
• Attramadal, H., Arriza, J.L., Aoki, C., Dawson, T.M., Codina, J., Kwatra, M.M., Snyder, S.H., Caron, M.G. and Lefkowitz, R.J. (1992). "Beta-arrestin2 , a novel member of the arrestin/Beta-arrestin gene family". J. Biol. Chem. 267 (25): 17882-17890. PMID 1517224.
• Kjelsberg, M.A., Cotecchia, S., Ostrowski, J., Caron, M.G. and Lefkowitz, R.J. (1992). "Constitutive activation of the alpha 1B-adrenergic receptor by all amino acid substitutions at a single site. Evidence for a region which constrains receptor activation". J. Biol. Chem. 267 (3): 1430-1433. PMID 1346134.
• Samama, P., Cotecchia, S., Costa, T. and Lefkowitz, R.J. (1993). "A mutation-induced activated state of the beta 2-adrenergic receptor-extending the ternary complex model". J. Biol. Chem. 268 (7): 4625-4636. PMID 8095262.
• Lefkowitz, R.J. (1993). "G protein-coupled receptor kinases". Cell. USA 74 (3): 409-412. PMID 8394218.
• Bond, R.A., Leff, P., Johnson, T.D., Milano, C.A., Rockman, H.A., McMinn, T.F., Apparsundaram, S., Hyek, M.F., Kenakin, T.P., Allen, L.F. and Lefkowitz, R.J. (1995). "Physiologic effects of inverse agonists in transgenic mice with myocardial overexpression of the beta 2-adrenoceptor". Nature. USA 374 (6519): 272-276. doi:10.1038/374272a0. PMID 7885448.
• Lin, F-T., Daaka, Y. and Lefkowitz, R.J. (1998). "β-arrestins regulate mitogenic signaling and clathrin-mediated endocytosis of the insulin-like growth factor I receptor". J. Biol. Chem. 273 (48): 31640-31643. PMID 9822622.
• Luttrell, L.M., Ferguson, S.S.G., Daaka, Y., Miller, W.E., Maudsley, S., Della Rocca, G.J., Lin, F-T., Kawakatsu, H., Owada, K., Luttrell, D.K., Caron, M.G. and Lefkowitz, R.J. (1999). "Beta-arrestin-dependent formation of beta2 adrenergic receptor-Src protein kinase complexes". Science. USA 283 (5402): 655-661. doi:10.1126/science.283.5402.655. PMID 9924018.
• Bohn, L.M., Lefkowitz, R.J. Gainetdinov, R.R., Peppel, K., Caron, M.D. and Lin, F-T. (1999). "Enhanced morphine analgesia in mice lacking βarrestin-2". Science. USA 286 (5449): 2495-2498. PMID 10617462.
• Lefkowitz, R.J. (2000). "The superfamily of heptahelical receptors". Nature Cell Biology. USA 2 (7): E132-E136. doi:10.1038/35017152. PMID 10878827.
• Shenoy, S.K., McDonald, P.H., Kohout, T.A., Lefkowitz, R.J. (2001). "Regulation of Receptor Fate by Ubiquitination of Activated β2-Adrenergic Receptor and β-Arrestin". Science. USA 294 (5545): 1307-1313. doi:10.1126/science.1063866. PMID 11588219.
• Luttrell, L.M., Roudabush, F.L., Choy, E.W., Miller, W.E., Field, M.E., Pierce, K.L., and Lefkowitz, R.J. (2001). "Activation and targeting of extracellular signal-regulated kinases by beta-arrestin scaffolds". Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci., USA 98 (5): 2449-2454. doi:10.1073/pnas.041604898. PMC 30158. PMID 11226259. http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=30158.
• Wei, H., Ahn, S., Shenoy, S.K., Karnik, S.S., Hunyady, L., Luttrell, L.M. and Lefkowitz, R.J. (2003). "Independent beta-arrestin 2 and G protein-mediated pathways for angiotensin II activation of extracellular signal-regulated kinases 1 and 2". Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 100 (19): 10782-10787. doi:10.1073/pnas.1834556100. PMC 196880. PMID 12949261. http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=196880.
• Ahn, S., Shenoy, S.K. Wei, H. and Lefkowitz, R.J. (2004). "Differential kinetic and spatial patterns of β-arrestin2 and G protein-mediated ERK activated by the angiotensin II receptor". J. Biol. Chem. 279 (34): 35518-35525. doi:10.1074/jbc.M405878200. PMID 15205453.
• Lefkowitz, R.J. and Shenoy, S.K. (2005). "Transduction of Receptor Signals by β-arrestins". Science.USA 308 (5721): 512-517. doi:10.1126/science.1109237. PMID 15845844.
• Shenoy, S.K., Drake, M.T., Nelson, C.D., Houtz, D.A., Xiao, K., Madabushi, S., Reiter, E., Premont, R.T., Lichtarge, O. and Lefkowitz, R.J. (2006). "β-arrestin-dependent G Protein-independent ERK 1/2 Activation by the β2-adrenergic receptor". J. Biol. Chem. 281 (2): 1261-1273. doi:10.1074/jbc.M506576200. PMID 16280323.
• Rajagopal, S., Rajagopal, K., Lefkowitz, R.J. (2010). "Teaching Old receptors new tricks: biasing seven-transmembrane receptors". Nature Reviews Drug Discovery. USA 9 (5): 1-12. doi:10.1038/nrd3091. PMC 2902265. PMID 20431569. http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=2902265.

References

1. ^ "HHMI Scientist Bio: Robert J. Lefkowitz, MD". HHMI Investigators Biography. http://www.hhmi.org/research/investigators/lefkowitz_bio.html.
2. ^ "HHMI Scientist Bio: Robert J. Lefkowitz, MD". HHMI Investigators Biography. http://www.hhmi.org/research/investigators/lefkowitz_bio.html.
3. ^ "Pioneers of cell receptor research share America's top prize in medicine". Albany Medical Center Website. http://www.amc.edu/PR/PressRelease/PR_705.html.
4. ^ http://hcr3.webofknowledge.com/author.cgi?id=16
5. ^ "North Carolina scientist wins American Heart Association award for discovering receptors’ role as specific targets for drug therapy". AHA website. 2009-11-15. http://www.newsroom.heart.org/index.php?s=43&item=874.
6. ^ "You Tube Video of Robert Lefkowitz receiving the National Medal of Science". You Tube. 2008-09-28. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=csDTzytNNDI.
7. ^ "Duke Medicine Physician-Scientist Receives National Medal of Science". Duke Health.org. 2008-09-28. http://www.dukehealth.org/health_library/news/10383.
8. ^ "Announcement and Citation". Shawprize.org. 2007-06-12. http://www.shawprize.org/en/shaw.php?tmp=3&twoid=50&threeid=59&fourid=83.
9. ^ "Albany Medical Center Prize". Albany Medical College website. 2007. http://www.amc.edu/academic/albanyprize/recipients.html.
10. ^ "Le Grand prix scientifique 2003". Fondation Lefoulon Delalande Institut de France website. 2003. http://www.institut-de-france.fr/prixmecenat/lefoulon/prix/historique_gp.html.
11. ^ "Jessie Stevenson Kovalenko Medal Recipients". NASonline.org. 2001. http://www.nasonline.org/site/PageServer?pagename=AWARDS_kovalenko.
12. ^ "Nominations". Gairdner.org. http://www.gairdner.org/awardrecipients/awardees2/19971988/1988/copy-of-robert-j-lefkowitz.